Class 09/12

Today in class we had the option to choose between two different labs. My group chose to do the lab about finding out who stole Jerrel's iPod. This lab helped us to understand macromolecules and the scientific method. We tested samples of a bean burrito with cheese, fat-free yogurt, toast with butter and jelly, pretzel, and a sample of the substance left on the desk where the iPod was for glucose, starch, protein, and lipids. We tested to see which of the lunch food snacks matched the substance left on the iPod. We know that whichever substance was made of the same molecules would lead to the person who took the iPod.

Class 9/10

Today in class we had a quiz over how well we know how to graph situations and problems. We had to know how to order the axises and draw the line of best fit appropriately. After the quiz we were lectured on the cell and how the cell works. We did a mind map connecting the cell membrane, strict, function, osmosis, and diffusion together. We had already previously been over diffusion and osmosis, but we learned that the cell membrane is semi-permeable and allows certain things in and out based on their size and polarity. We also learned that the phospholipids in a cell create the barrier and that proteins transport things through the cell, help control the functions, transduce signals, and help recognize cells. After going over the cell we also went over the first house case and found out that the teen suffered from lack of hydration.

Class 08/30

Today in class we did a couple of different activities to help us learn about the different properties of water. We reviewed some properties of water for homework, but in class we did hands on activities to help better understand the properties of water. We also began studying the difference between osmosis and diffusion. We learned that osmosis is the net movement of solvent through a selectively permeable membrane. Diffusion is the process in which molecules intermingle to balance themselves equally.

Class 08/28

Today in class we were quizzed on our knowledge of chemistry. We were quizzed on how well we can solve basic chemistry problems and how much knowledge we already have from basic chemistry. Before our quiz we reviewed some chemistry ideas and facts. This class was primarily to make sure we had enough past knowledge from last years chemistry classes. We had to have enough basic background information in order to start the year off right.

Chapter 6 "Survival of the Sickest"

Chapter 6 of "Survival of the Sickest", Jump into the Gene Pool, is all about genes and DNA. It starts with an introduction of the word vaccine which came form the Latin word for cow, vacca, and the Latin word for cowpox, vaccinia. The story continues to say that every person has 46 chromosomes. Each person is given 23 chromosomes from each parent, and scientist have discovered that only about 3% of the DNA is active in building cells while the other 97% "junk DNA" more commonly known now as noncoding DNA which only means it isn't responsible for making proteins. The story continues on to talk about mutations and that genetic changes can occur from errors or sometimes chemical disruptions. It explains that virus outbreaks are caused by antigenic drift, when mutation occurs in the DNA of a virus, or antigenic shift, when a virus get new genes from a related strain. The author also speaks on "jumping genes" which was discovered by Barbara McClintock. "Jumping genes" are mutations in which a DNA sequence duplicates itself in another location changing the gene sequence. There are two types of "jumping genes", DNA transposons, which work through a cut and paste process, or DNA retrotransposons, which work through a copy and paste process. This is a large part of what differentiates our noncoding DNA.

From Atoms to Traits

1. George Mendel led a series of of breeding experiments during the 1850's-60's with different pea plants that showed morphological differences. It showed how some differences in pea plants stem lengths, seed smoothness, and many other differences. Mendel's experiment showed that heritable traits were passed from parents to offspring even though they weren't always visible. This led to the discovery that this pattern is mirrored within the chromosomes in a cell nucleus.

2. James D. Watson and Francis Crick discovered that DNA is made of two stranded helix held together with pairing of the four chemical bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine which are passed form parent to offspring. It looks like 

3.

1. Point Mutation- A single base pair is changed changing the traits of a species. An example are whippet dogs. The simple change in one base pair changes the muscle growth of the dog which changes its main skills and abilities.
2. Insertion- Additional base pairs to genes changes the traits of a species. An additional 800 base pair is added to the genes of peas to make them wrinkled rather than smooth.
3. Gene Copy Number- Duplicating by copying errors in genes can cause differences as well as variations between the same species. Chimpanzees carry one gene for the starch digesting enzyme whereas humans can carry up to 10.
4. Duplication- Strands repeating the same base pair eight or more times are called homopolymers which are prone to copying errors. In pigs two additional C-G pairs cause light colored coats, but by duplicating mistakes the pig can get dark patches.
5. Regulatory Changes- Mutations that control the genes location can transform the formation of an organism. Changes in the region of a single gene cause the difference between the bushy teosinte plant and the tall modern cornstalk.

4. Evo-devo studies the evolutionary development of organisms or the study of influential developmental genes and their role in evolution.

5. As we already know, life started in Africa. Since life started in Africa and it is shown that the gene that allows people to produce lactase is common in Saudi Arabia we can deduce that humans were originally made with the ability to produce lactase throughout their life. As modern day comes to be we see that more and more people have lost this gene. From this information we can only conclude that somewhere after the human migration from Africa people began developing a different gene that doesn't allow them to produce lactase as an adult. This gene has been passed on for centuries through travel as has now made the common person unable to produce lactase as an adult.

Founder Mutation

Founder Mutation

            Medical researchers, geneticist, and scientist have recently been able to come to the conclusion that it is possible to trace a person’s ancestry through their DNA. In genetic mutations that are hereditary these genes will be passed on to all of their future generations. This person with the initial mutation is called the founder and their genetic legacy is called the founder mutation. Many founders are identified for carrying hereditary disease like sickle-cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, and other deficiencies. This disease is created in the founder’s genes and can be shown in their DNA as well as all of their descendants. Most changes in people’s DNA are eliminated at birth, but these natural diseases are created by germ-line mutation, which survive after birth and are able to be passed on.

            There are also hot-spot mutations, which cause things like dwarfism. Hot-spot mutations occur in DNA base pairs that are prone to mutations.  People with hot-spot mutations usually have no relation to one another besides the mutation in the base pair. This is unlike founder mutations which are passed on through generations, and with founder mutations the length of the damaged DNA is shortened every generation. The stretch of damaged DNA is called the haplotype, and people with the same haplotype share a common ancestor. Tracing haplotypes is how geneticists have been able to trace the founder of the mutation and track certain populations. Disease mutations exist at a very small rate while founder mutations can be found by percent in a population.

            The article along with many people often question, “Why does evolution preserve rather than weed out such seemingly detrimental mutations”? The reason is that in order to receive the disease from the founder mutation, the offspring must receive the mutation from both parents. A person that receives it from only one parent is called a carrier. Carriers will never receive the disease, and they also receive certain advantages for carrying the mutations. A great example is sickle-cell anemia. Carriers will survive malaria infections, but a person with two copies of the mutation is prone to pain and a short life. Sickle-cell anemia has five different haplotypes meaning it was born naturally five different times showing the profitability of the mutation.

            With this information geneticist have been able to piece together the human past. They have been able to determine that humans started in Africa and that about 75,000 years ago a subgroup left Africa. This is shown in the PTC gene which the humans that left developed a mutation from a founder that allowed them not to taste certain bitterness in certain chemicals and plants. Geneticist were able to conclude that the subgroup left Africa around 75,000 years ago by studying the length of the haplotype. This is just one example for the many benefits geneticist have learned to study in our DNA to develop human evolution.

Evidence of Evolution Quiz

Question 1.

In the diagram we can see that originally in 55 million years ago the Mesonychid wandered the Earth. It lived on land with four legs and paws to search and scavenge the land for its food. Around 52 million years ago we start to notice the Mesonychid develop into the Ambulocetus. The Ambulocetus has developed webbed hands and feet for swimming faster and diving into water. It also has a much more aquatic body structure with the development of a tail. Around 46 million years ago the Ambulocetus began to evolve into the Rodhocetus. The Rodhocetus developed much more fin like front limbs and two flattened flukes for a tail. It also had a slight increase in size. Around 42 million years ago the Rodhocetus began to evolve into the Basilosaurus. The Basilosaurus most noticeably had a large increase in its length. It also evolved to become a better and faster swimmer with an aquatic designed body.

Question 2.

E

Question 3.

All of the three organisms most noticeably have wings in order to fly. The bat has finger bones in order to design its wings; birds have one single limb to define each of its wings; and dragonflies with a very analogous structure have no bones. Bats and birds share homologous structures to a common ancestor, but the dragonfly has an analogous structure to birds and bats.

Question 4.

DNA comparisons of organisms can show more realistically how related two organisms are by comparing the similarities in their cytochrome C and their amino acids. An example of this is comparing humans to other primates. A human has 0 differences in their cytochrome C and amino acids from chimpanzees, but they have 1 difference in their amino acid from Rhesus monkeys.

Question 5.

Homology is the gradual "tweeking" of the bone structure between organisms and their common ancestors because of their need to adapt. An example is the homologous structure between humans and orangutans in their forearms. The orangutan developed longer forearms and longer fingers to enable them to be able to swing from trees, but the human developed shorter forearms and fingers as the began to walk rather than swing from trees.

Class 09/06

Today in class we took a look at how diffusion works within a cell. We used gel cells to see how different substance travel through cells. My group used three cups of Potassium Iodine and three different sized cells. We placed the different sized cells into the cups of Potassium Iodine and let them sit for a while. When we pulled the cells out we cut them and examined how deep the Potassium Iodine traveled through. We measured the length of how far the KI was able to travel through the cells. The larger the cells were, the shorter the KI was able to diffuse through the cell membrane.

Class 09/03

Today in class we did an experiment in which we tested to see the strength of the osmosis between six  different substances. We used six different unknown substances differentiated only by different colored food coloring. We put 7 ml of each substance into six different cells, massed them, and placed each cell in their own cup of water. We waited some time to allow the osmosis to take place, and after a while we took out the different cells and re-massed them. Each cell gained different amounts of mass and through this we could tell which substances contained more solute by the amount of osmosis that took place between the cells and the water. In ranking of most solute the solutions went: red, purple, yellow, green, clear, blue. We learned how in osmosis water is able to travel into and out of semipermeable cells.

Class 08/23

Class One:

Today in class we tested the experiment we watched for homework. My group consisting of Adam and I tested the variable of different liquids. We used the same procedure for 2% milk, skim milk, whole milk, and orange juice and came to the conclusion that different liquids change the strength of the reaction. We determined that the more fat the milk contained the larger the reaction was, and also that orange juice barely had a reaction. We did the reaction twice with all of the liquids to make sure our data was accurate, and duplicating our experiment once again proved our conclusion correct.